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Pressure vessels have been a strong market for composites, driven historically by steady growth in compressed natural gas (CNG) for clean energy, including Type 3 (metal liner) and Type 4 (plastic liner) tanks in CNG vehicles and Type 4 mobile pipelines for industrial transport. Composite pressure vessels are also used onboard space vehicles to store cryogenic fuel for rocket propulsion and gases for other systems.

All of these systems typically use carbon fiber and traditionally relied on epoxy resins, but new designs are being developed with a thermoplastic polymer matrix.

The use of Type 4 tanks to store pressurized hydrogen (H₂) grew dramatically during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, as this zero-emission fuel for industry and transport was added to the mix of technologies needed to keep global temperature rise below 2°C. (See CW’s 2024 market summary.)

However, beginning Q1 2025, the Trump administration reversed U.S. climate and clean energy policy, prioritizing fossil fuels. The H₂ market has been further weakened by tariff-induced global economic uncertainty while European governments have diverted billions away from climate aid commitments to defense. AI is also a factor, drawing away billions in investment capital but also rapidly ramping its demand for immediate access to huge amounts of power, setting back the transition to clean energy.

Even though the H₂ economy has been dealt a severe blow, efforts are still ongoing, especially in Europe and Asia, where strategic and financial incentives exist for countries who have abundant clean power for producing H₂, for those who don’t have oil and gas and also for those still prioritizing saving the planet. Meanwhile, composite Type 4 tanks continue to be used for CNG and renewable natural gas (RNG), which is a carbon-negative fuel, as well as to enable the rapid rise in New Space, where more tanks will be needed for the projected growth in launch vehicles and extraterrestrial operations.

Tanks for space

Rocket launches are projected to increase from a record 258 in 2024 to as many as 2,000/year by 2030. This increase is driven by satellite deployment and replacement, cislunar operations (between the Earth and the Moon), Mars exploration and space tourism as well as in-orbit servicing, assembly and manufacturing. Type 4 and composite-overwrapped pressure vessels (COPVs), which have traditionally used an aluminum liner, may be used to store fuel for propulsion but also gases for life support and other systems.

Proven since the 1980s, Type 5 composite pressure vessels without a liner are gaining traction. A notable example is the use of such Type 5 cryogenic propulsion tanks onboard ’s (IM, Houston, Texas, U.S.) Nova-C lunar lander. All-composite Pressurmaxx liquid methane and liquid oxygen tanks made by (SSLC, Torrance, Calif., U.S.) were used on the successful IM-1 and IM-2 lunar missions (read “Type V pressure vessel enables lunar lander”). SSLC has built 150-200 tanks over 15 years. A 2025 CW Talks podcast interviews Markus Rufer from SSLC, discussing the company’s aims to integrate tanks into the spacecraft structure, reducing parts and weight.

Meanwhile, space company (ChristChurch, New Zealand), builder of the Mk-II Aurora spaceplane with a primary composite structure, is expanding its satellite propulsion system offerings by partnering with (Eke, Belgium) to work on smart COPVs through a development contract from the European Space Agency (ESA) Advanced Research in Telecommunications Systems’ (ARTES) . Dawn designs and manufactures 30-liter tanks with an aluminum liner overwrapped in carbon fiber and epoxy. Com&Sens is collaborating with semi-automated sensor embedding during filament winding to digitize production and testing parameters using embedded strain and temperature FBG optical fiber sensors. “Using smart technology during the development allows us to bring a better product to market, faster,” says Stefan Powell, CEO of Dawn Aerospace. These tanks will be capable of supporting large satellite systems and geosynchronous orbit (GEO) missions (read “Dawn Aerospace … develops smart COPVs”).

Note, Com&Sens has provided on using fiber optic sensing for digital manufacturing of composite pressure vessels. See “Com&Sens presents workshop on fiber optic sensing for COPVs.”

Rocket manufacturing company (RDX, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec, Canada) is working to advance its 18-meter Aurora orbital launch vehicle which features a booster stage with several carbon fiber composite tanks designed in-house to store liquid oxidizer. The company was awarded $1.5 million from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) with $1 million directed to optimizing the mass of large composite propellant tanks. Critical for improving , this project builds on RDX’s expertise in composite pressure vessels as it moves toward a full-scale demonstration. The company says that its goal is to maximize Aurora’s payload capacity, with a spaceflight demo planned for 2025.

One notable player in Type 5 tanks for spacecraft was awarded funding in January 2025 to advance Type 4 tanks for H₂ storage in vehicles on Earth. Infinite Composites Inc. (Tulsa, Okla., U.S.) announced a cooperative research and development agreement (CRADA) with Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.) to advance 700-bar storage tanks with the following innovations:

• Development of integral gas barrier materials to replace permeation barrier layers.
• Application of novel, high-aspect ratio 2D nanofiller-based barrier coatings.
• Use of additive manufacturing techniques to aid tank production.

Continued sales in CNG/RNG

Reports from (Costa Mesa, Calif., U.S.) and its parent company Hexagon Composites (Ålesund, Norway) have shown continued sales in RNG/CNG fuel systems using Type 4 pressure vessels. A new wave of orders in late 2024 totaling $4.3 million was driven by sales of ’ (Columbus, Ind., U.S.) X15N natural gas engine, designed specifically for the North American heavy-duty commercial truck market. At the end of April 2025, Daimler Truck North America joined Kenworth and Peterbilt as the leading Class 8 truck OEMs to offer X15N engine options. Additional orders based on the X15N engine were announced for 60 trucks in July 2025 and for 100 heavy-duty trucks to be operated by Trayecto, said to be the largest trucking company in Mexico, in August 2025.

Unfortunately, the freight industry has been experiencing a sustained downturn since mid-2022. As described by an American Trucking Association (ATA) economist in a , trucking companies are facing impacts from tariffs, inflation and an uncertain consumer market. Tariffs are driving up prices in materials and slowing manufacturing, which has cut demand and freight volume. Meanwhile, costs for fuel, operations and maintenance are increasing. However, movements toward cleaner energy, like with the X15N engine, are seen as a positive dynamic.

This dynamic has also helped Hexagon Agility sell CFRP tank-based Mobile Pipeline units. A U.S. oilfield services company is using Titan 450 modules to transition its fleet of well completion equipment from diesel fuel to natural gas while Watani, the country of Jordan’s National Advanced Natural Gas Company, will use ADR X-Store 45-foot modules for flexibility and efficiency to supply both industrial zones and remote communities alike.

Also in 2025, Hexagon Composites fully acquired the alternative fuels subsidiary of Worthington Enterprises known as Sustainable Energy Solutions (SES). Now renamed SES Composites, the business manufactures composite cylinders and systems in SÅ‚upsk, Poland, and operates a valve assembly facility in Burscheid, Germany. “This acquisition brings complimentary capabilities to our portfolio and can realize further synergies across our production and supply chain,” says Phillip Schramm, CEO of Hexagon Composites. “As recognized by European OEMs, natural gas, whether renewable or conventional, will remain a key part of the European energy transition for the foreseeable future, and this acquisition strengthens our position as a trusted partner to OEMs in the commercial transportation sector.”

Another key subsidiary of Hexagon Composites is  (Centennial, Colo., U.S.), which uses proprietary modal acoustic emission (MAE) technology to perform in situ requalification of metal and composite pressure vessels and virtual pipeline trailers. In 2025, it announced a long-term agreement (LTA) to provide exclusive requalification services to a U.S. oil services company’s fleet of virtual pipeline trailers with composite cylinders. Such requalification is required every 5 years for pipeline trailers.

Green H₂ markets: China will lead, U.S. will lag

Europe is still pushing forward, albeit at a slower pace. Citing economic and political pressures, many projects have slowed or delayed while others have been canceled. However, the Clean Hydrogen Partnership announced 26 new projects in 2025 to accelerate the development and deployment of H₂ technologies across Europe. Meanwhile, China is set to dominate the global market for green hydrogen. According to (New York, N.Y., U.S.), Chinese electrolyzer development has surged in 2025, with manufacturers signing contracts with green hydrogen projects in Europe, the Middle East, Brazil and the U.S.

The U.S., however, will now lag behind. The Trump administration has delayed loans for clean H₂ projects and canceled grants for industrial producers seeking to reduce their emissions. Due to this and canceled tax credits, estimates for U.S. electrolyzer installations have been cut by more than 60%.

Meanwhile, the Indian government aligns with China in seeing clean energy as a growth strategy, with goals to install 500 gigawatts of non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030, become an energy-independent nation by 2047 and attain net zero by 2070. As part of this, it has established a National Green Hydrogen Mission that aims to make India a “global hub” for using, producing and exporting green H₂. The country launched its first green H₂ hub in January 2025 and is , manufactured by Integral Coach Factory in Chennai.

China is also launching H₂-powered rail. In September 2024, (Beijing, China) announced two product launches, the Cinova H₂, a new energy intelligent intercity train, and the autonomous rail rapid transit (ART) 2.0. Images and released of the new train show standard roof-mounted units for housing H₂ storage tanks. Cinova H_â‚‚ offers advancements in speed, passenger capacity and range, offering a transportation option that can be used on non-electrified railways worldwide. The ART 2.0, which will reportedly also use H₂, is designed for medium-to-low passenger volumes, blending the benefits of trams and road-based vehicles to meet urban transport needs.

Type 4 tanks for H₂ vehicles

As reported by , 4,102 H₂ fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) were registered worldwide in H1 2025, a 27.2% decline year on year. Even China, which is currently the largest market for FCEVs, saw 2,040 units sold, an 18.4% decline versus 2024. In a separate report, the news outlet notes vehicle OEM Stellantis has exited the FCEV market.

Even so, certain vehicle OEMs remain committed to H₂ models. In 2024, Honda (Tokyo, Japan) started production of its 2025 Honda CR-V e:FCEV at its Performance Manufacturing Center (PMC) in Marysville, Ohio, U.S. The compact CUV will use two Type 4 H₂ storage tanks. In February 2025, the company , which slashes production cost by 50%, increases durability by >200% while reducing size thanks to a three times increase in volumetric power density for more flexible layouts in the CR-V and potentially other vehicles.

Also in 2024, (Munich, Germany) and (Tokyo, Japan) announced they would launch a series production FCEV in 2028. The model will use composite pressure vessels for H₂ storage. In a September 2025 report by , BMW announced that it is on track to start series production of its next-generation fuel cells for passenger cars in its Steyr, Austria, facility with construction for H₂-based drivetrains due to start in May 2026.

In September 2025, Dongfeng Motor Corp. (Wuhan, Hubei), one of the largest Chinese stated-owned automobile manufacturers, said it would in the city of Ruzhou in central China. The first vehicle modification line will convert 1,000 trucks and 450 other vehicles to run on H₂ in the first 3 years.

Key H₂ tank manufacturers

Hexagon Purus (Oslo, Norway) remains the leading manufacturer of Type 4 tanks for H₂ storage. CW toured its factory in Kassel, Germany, and reported on its fully automated, Industry 4.0 production line which advances efficiency and versatility in a small footprint for next-gen, sustainable composites production. In December 2024, it announced supply of Type 4 H₂ storage cylinders to (Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada) for the fifth year in a row, including the zero-emission transit bus Xcelsior Charge FC, with cylinders delivered throughout 2025.

Notable announcements in 2025 include a multiyear agreement in March with (Bussnang, Switzerland), a manufacturer of rail applications, for H₂ fuel storage systems for H₂ rail applications in California. In April, the company received its first order from MCV, a bus manufacturer in the Middle East and Africa, for next-gen to be delivered in 2025 for use onboard MCV’s fuel-cell electric buses while (Shijiazhuang, China), a joint venture company between (Shenzhen, China) and Hexagon Purus, delivered its first Type 4 high-pressure H₂ cylinders for use in Hexagon Purus’ distribution modules in Europe.

In its , revenues are down 63% versus Q2 2024, and yet, order backlog is up 33% versus Q1 2025, totaling 1,056 million Krone, not far off from its 1,242 million Krone backlog in Q1 2024. The company continues to focus on H₂ transit bus and infrastructure applications and has also seen growth in Type 4 tanks for space vehicles as well as industrial gas transport.

In April 2024, Type 4 tank manufacturer (Heerlen, Netherlands) completed its move to a larger 10,000-square-meter facility in Alsdorf, Germany, to handle larger orders, streamline operations and potentially accommodate up to five times current production, to 30,000 tanks/year.

Also in April 2024, Voith Group established a separate subsidiary, (Garching, Germany), focused on Type 4 tanks made using towpreg, and announced a strategic cooperation with the  (Wuxi) for research, development, production and application of H₂ storage systems.

Thermoplastic composite pipe and tanks for H₂

One notable trend in the development of H₂ storage and transport is the use of thermoplastic composites (TPC) versus the traditional epoxy-based thermoset matrices. In April 2025, CW wrote about ’ (Loughborough, U.K.) development of TPC pipes for H₂ distribution which reduce operational and decommissioning emissions by 60-70% versus steel pipes. A multilayer barrier system prevents H₂ permeation while 1.2-kilometer continuous pipe lengths speed installation rates by 40 times, yet the pipes still offer a 30+ year service life, maintaining structural integrity even after rapid decompression events.

Key projects in TPC tank development for H₂ storage include:

• COCOLIH2T aiming for two TPC demonstrators and TRL 4 by 2025;
• OVERLEAF for a TPC LH₂ tank with 40% storage efficiency, 60% less weight and 25% boost in storage capacity (see webinars and 3D printing achievements);
• LeiWaCo (2022-2025) for economic series production of TPC LH₂ tanks;
• THOR, completed in 2022, for industrialized production of Type 4.5 TPC tanks;
• Efforts at the National Composites Centre in the U.K. and the Netherlands LH₂ composite tank consortium.

Another key project is BRYSON (2020-2023). In late 2024, CW wrote about this project’s achievements, including automated TPC tube production and investigation into permeability, noting that EVOH provides 25 times better barrier properties versus PA6. In addition to potentially enabling H₂ storage that fits into EV battery compartments, this concept could also be applied to narrow tanks housed in aircraft wings.

CW also updated readers on the Netherlands liquid hydrogen (LH₂) composite tank consortium, which aims to validate a fully composite long-life tank for civil aviation by 2025 and won the Best Poster Award at the 7^th (ITHEC, Oct. 9-10, Bremen, Germany). The consortium is working with Cetex TC1225 UD tape prepreg comprising carbon fiber and LMPAEK polymer (supplied by Victrex, Clevelys, U.K.). Key topics include tape quality monitoring, continuous ultrasonic welding and induction welding, fiber steering, composite baffles and sensors. (Read “Development of a composite liquid hydrogen tanks for commercial aircraft.”)

In July 2025, AZL Aachen GmbH (Aachen, Germany) also launched a project to rethink pressure vessel design and production in alignment with TPC materials and manufacturing. “Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Production – Benchmarking of Design-for-Manufacturing Strategies to Optimize Material Efficiency and Cost” will analyze current technologies, develop new design concepts for H₂ and CNG storage tanks and benchmark resulting configurations in terms of weight, cost, recyclability and production KPIs. AZL also announced successful completion of its 12-month R&D project entitled “Trends & Design Factors for Hydrogen Pressure Vessels.”

The ROAD TRHYP project, started in January 2023, has successfully designed a TPC Type 5 cylinder with gravimetric capacity higher than 7%. Supported by the Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, the project will conclude in June 2026.

Conformable tanks

BRYSON is one approach to developing conformable tanks with flexibility for fit into tight vehicle spaces, but CW has reported on others over the past year, including:

• The Czech project “Composite integral fuel tank for pressurised hydrogen” composite multicell integral tank being developed in the Czech Republic for aviation
  including winding specialist CompoTech PLUS; 
• ’s (Eynsham, Oxfordshire, U.K.) “Hydrogen in a Box” development;
• Noble Gas Systems (Wixom, Mich., U.S.), which has received an Approval in Principle (AiP) certificate for its dry fiber conformable H₂ storage vessel from DNV (Bærum, Norway) and raised $4.2 million in Series B funding.

Aviation industry’s drive for tanks

Another blow to the developing H₂ economy this year was Airbus’ announcement that it will push back its original 2035 entry-into-service objectives for the H₂-powered ZEROe passenger aircraft by up to 10 years. Although it remains committed to bringing a commercially viable, fully electric H₂-powered aircraft to market, Airbus explained, development of the necessary infrastructure and ecosystem are not yet on pace to support full-scale operations of such aircraft.

And yet, the 2025 Paris Air Show featured multiple announcements regarding H₂ developments, including:

• Airbus, MTU Aero Engines to advance H₂ fuel cell technology.
  A memorandum of understanding (MOU) with (Munich, Germany) will progress H₂ fuel cell propulsion to decarbonize aviation.
• GKN Aerospace supports Airbus-led ICEFlight program.
  GKN Aerospace (Redditch, U.K.) has joined the collaborative Innovative Cryogenic Electric Flight (ICEFlight) project. Led by Airbus, the consortium will collectively explore the use of liquid hydrogen (LH₂) as a fuel source as well as a cold source for the electrical system cooling.

CW also reported on the European Union Aviation Safety Agency’s (EASA) first international workshop , with the aim of developing a certification approach that has the support of the entire community. More recently,  (Sydney, Australia) has received funding from the Australian federal government to develop and demonstrate LH₂-powered aircraft for regional and remote Australia using its Vertiia eVTOL aircraft, which comprises an electric motor with a battery, a H₂ fuel cell and a composite tank, developed with Fabrum (Christchurch, New Zealand).

Meanwhile, (Everett, Wash., U.S.) continues to progress toward certification of its ZA600 H₂-electric powertrain. Although it has tested cryogenic tanks for LH₂, it hasn’t confirmed these will use composites. However, in my 2022 interview with Val Miftakhov, founder and CEO of ZeroAvia, he did see the future for composites in this application:

“We see the most promising approach is using composite tanks and we are working with a couple of partners on that already. We want to see H₂ aircraft flying as far as jet fuel aircraft, possibly in 10-20 years, and I think cryogenic tanks using lightweight composites will be key to that.”  

In March 2025, the company announced its selection by AFWERX for a Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) grant to conduct a feasibility study focused on integrating H₂ propulsion into Cessna Caravan aircraft alongside advanced aircraft automation technology. “This feasibility study will provide greater insight into how H₂ fuel cell propulsion can reduce detectability and costs of air operations, enhance capability of autonomous air vehicles and de-risk fuel supply in forward operating environments,” says Miftakhov. The company believes H₂ fuel cells are a promising technology to improve the range, duration and turnaround time for a variety of electric unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV).

This was followed in July 2025 with ZeroAvia’s announcement that it would work with (Toronto, Canada) to develop regional H₂ eVTOL air travel, exploring ZeroAvia’s ZA600 H₂-electric powertrain for Horizon Aircraft’s Cavorite X7 eVTOL (CW has reported extensively on the ZA600, see “ZeroAvia advances to certify ZA600 in 2025...” and “ZeroAvia receives FAA G-1...”). The partnership will also accelerate research into the necessary infrastructure and certification guidelines for a zero-emission pathway for Horizon Aircraft. “More and more eVTOL companies are looking to H₂-electric propulsion as the breakthrough that can extend range potential and durability of electric propulsion systems,” explains Miftakhov.

In August 2025, ZeroAvia announced it had of the ZA600 and is also advancing toward certifying the company’s first fully H₂-electric powertrain with the UK Civil Aviation Authority. ZeroAvia launched a in May 2024 to serve potential applications including battery, hybrid and fuel cell electric fixed-wing aircraft, rotorcraft and UAVs. ZeroAvia’s complete ZA600 H₂-electric powertrain is designed for up to 20-seat commercial aircraft.

Cryo-compressed H₂

A promising alternative to LH₂ that already uses a composite inner tank is cryo-compressed H₂ (CcH₂). In July 2024, (Pfeffenhausen, Germany) announced that its CcH₂ storage system for heavy trucks was beginning on-road demonstrations. The Cryogas system features a 400-bar Type 3 inner tank — aluminum liner wrapped with carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy resin via towpreg, which Cryomotive says provides higher repeatability and faster winding speeds for more cost-effective mass production.

A single tank system stores 38 kilograms of CcH₂ and has successfully passed hydraulic burst and cycle testing. Cryomotive offers two frame-mounted tanks to store 76 kilograms, or 3-4 vessels, in a rack storing up to 150 kilograms of CcH₂. A system cost of €500/kilogram is possible at a production volume of 1,000 tanks/year.

Meanwhile, Verne (San Francisco, Calif., U.S.) successfully demonstrated its first CcH₂ truck in southern California in late 2024. Verne reports its composite CcH₂ technology provides 33% greater storage density versus LH₂ and 87% greater density than traditional 700-bar compressed H₂ gas. Additionally, CcH₂ reportedly offers lower densification costs and less H₂ boil-off losses relative to LH₂. The company also signed an MOU with ZeroAvia to jointly evaluate the opportunities for using CcH₂ onboard H₂-powered aircraft

However, with the sharp decline in clean transportation funding in the U.S., Verne has now pivoted to using its technology to offer H₂ and clean CNG solutions to help companies with for industry and applications like data centers for AI.

New tank manufacturers and products

Companies that have reported new developments in composite tanks over the past year include:

• B&T Composites
• Gas Vessel Production
• Pressura
• Quantum Fuel Systems.

New materials announced for composite pressure vessels include Tenax IMS65 E23 36K 1630tex, the first 36K carbon fiber by Teijin Carbon (Wuppertal, Germany). This high-tensile, intermediate modulus (IM) fiber reportedly enables high-speed filament winding and improved spreadability for producing prepreg tape. Meanwhile, startup (Uppsala, Sweden) secured a €2.5 million EU grant to develop a pilot facility in Uppsala for its polymer-graphene H₂ storage lining technology, aiming to reduce potential leakage by 83%.

New processes include winding, dome reinforcements and recycling. Engineering Technology Corp. (ETC, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.) has showcased its latest systems featuring high-speed filament winding, automation and integrated robotics as well as towpreg and slit tape winding. Mikrosam (Prilep, Macedonia) delivered a system to BTU in Germany enabling increased precision in automated composite layup of Type 5 H₂ pressure vessels, while Magnum Venus Products (MVP, Knoxville, Tenn., U.S.) has highlighted developments in four-axis filament winding for wet winding and prepreg applications and Roth Composite Machinery GmbH (Steffenberg, Germany) has developed an innovative automation concept for reliable fiber changing, as well as its winding software µRoWin for increased efficiency.

Cevotec (Munich, Germany) commissioned its Samba Pro PV system at the National Composites Center Japan (NCC Japan, Nagoya) for developing lightweight, sustainable composite tanks with increased storage volume. The systems based on fiber patch placement (FPP) technology will aid with production of dome reinforcements for H₂ pressure vessels, enabling reduced weight, cost and environmental footprint of composite tanks. Cevotec’s dome reinforcement solution won the 2024 CAMX Combined Strength Award and was further showcased at CAMX 2025.

Meanwhile, Cygnet Texkimp (Northwich, U.K.) partnered with H₂ powertrain solutions developer (Nuneaton, Warwickshire, U.K.) to recover high-value, continuous carbon fiber from pressure vessels as part of a strategy to improve circularity in the manufacture of filament-wound parts.

There are also an array of developments in software and sensors. Composites engineering firm CIKONI (Stuttgart, Germany) has worked for more than a decade on projects to optimize composite pressure vessel designs, including work with Cevotec using dome reinforcements to optimize layup and achieve a 15% reduction in carbon fiber use while maintaining equivalent mechanical properties, enabling reduced wall thickness for 17% more usable storage capacity. CW reported on its advances in “Using multidisciplinary simulation, real-time process monitoring to improve composite pressure vessels.”

CW has also reported on (Rotterdam, Netherlands), which has been globally supplying robotic filament winding equipment since 2007, and released its TaniqWind Pro software in 2022. See its JEC 2025 highlights: “Spin-off shares expertise in filament winding software, robotics.”

Finally, (Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France) has developed a technology solution for structural health monitoring (SHM) of composite H₂ pressure vessels (Type 3 and 4), enabling real-time monitoring of damages, bending detection and localization to ensure safety, durability and predictive maintenance. Its SensityTech detects and locates real-time variations in material properties, providing fast and reliable information on tank integrity as well as remaining lifetime for potential reuse in new vehicles.